The Commerce Server 2007 Marketing System is a high-performance, versatile platform that you use to perform targeted personalized e-marketing through the Web or electronic mail. It assists e-commerce enterprises in effectively communicating relevant messages to shoppers in order to improve sales either directly or indirectly.
The Marketing System includes support for the following functions:
Content targeting, up-sell and cross-sell capabilities, advertisements and testing, e-mail campaigns, discounts, and coupons.
Combining and prioritizing campaign items. Campaign methods include the following:
Discounts. Create and edit discounts, combine discounts, set discount interactions, apply order-level discounts, shipping and leveraged discounts. An example of a discount is buy one product, get a second product at a 20% discount.
Awareness advertisement. Create and edit ads. For example, showcase a newly introduced product on the homepage of the Web site.
Suggestive selling. Create expressions that you can use to target ads or discounts. For example, if a shopping cart contains Product A, show banner ad B.
Direct mail. Create and send direct mail to lists of users. For example, send a newsletter or promotional mail piece to all active customers each month.
Managing campaigns for customers who compete in the same industry so that the competitor's ads never appear on the same page.
Enabling customers on the Web site to see ads and apply discounts by using coupons or entering promotion codes.
Enabling business managers to create and manage campaign items such as discounts, ads, and direct mail that they use as marketing tools to increase sales.
Publishing campaigns into production so that campaigns only become visible to the run-time system on activation and approval.
Generating reports to measure key metrics.
Marketing System Integration and Feature Areas
The Marketing System integrates with the Catalog, Orders, and Profiles Systems, and the Data Warehouse. It includes these five main feature areas:
Campaigns. Manages the campaigns, customers, advertisements, and discounts which form marketing programs. The Campaigns module is integrated with both the Profiles System and the Catalog System through expressions. Expressions enable you to target advertisements to users and to apply discounts to products.
Content Selection Framework (CSF). A platform-level framework for building targeted content delivery applications on the Internet and making customization and extension of the advertising and discount delivery systems easier. The CSF allows for multiple pieces of content to be retrieved as a record set with only one call, which creates a significant timesaving.
Expression Evaluator Engine (EEE). Provides the logic to evaluate expression objects. An expression is a condition that Commerce Server evaluates against profiles to determine whether to deliver content, or perform another action. For example, an expression might be user total visit > 100. If this expression evaluates to True, a specific piece of content displays to a user who has visited your site more than 100 times.
Mailing List Management. Manages lists of users created for a direct mail campaign. You can create, import, and export multiple lists focusing on different user profiles. You can maintain opt-out lists and references as part of a direct mail campaign. The mailing list management database maintains direct mail lists, per job opt-out lists and global opt-out lists.
Direct Mailer Service. A fast, scalable service that you use to send personalized e-mail messages from a Web page, or non-personalized mailings from a flat text file, to large groups of recipients. Direct Mailer tracks e-mail and records which messages are sent and which are clicked (opened). This enables you to analyze the success of a direct mail campaign. The Direct Mailer service is designed to send bulk personalized e-mail messages to millions of users.
Thursday, June 25, 2009
Working Capital
the funds that are readily available to operate a business.
Example: Working capital comprises the total net current assets of a business minus its liabilities.Current assets â€" current liabilitiesCurrent assets are cash and assets that can be converted to cash within one year or a normal operating cycle; current liabilities are monies owed that are due within one year.
If a company's current assets total $300,000 and its current liabilities total $160,000, its working capital is:$300,000 â€" $160,000 = $140,000
Example: Working capital comprises the total net current assets of a business minus its liabilities.Current assets â€" current liabilitiesCurrent assets are cash and assets that can be converted to cash within one year or a normal operating cycle; current liabilities are monies owed that are due within one year.
If a company's current assets total $300,000 and its current liabilities total $160,000, its working capital is:$300,000 â€" $160,000 = $140,000
Wednesday, June 10, 2009
Challenges and Strategies of Matrix Organizations:
Top-Level and Mid-Level Managers’ Perspectives
Thomas Sy, College of Business Administration, California State University, Long Beach Laura Sue D’Annunzio, A.T. Kearney Inc
sing surveys, inter-views, and work-shops with 294 top-level and mid-level managers from seven major multinational corporations in
six industries, we identified the top five contemporary challenges of the matrix organizational form:
(1) misalignedgoals,
(2) unclear roles andresponsibilities,
(3) ambiguousauthority,
(4) lack of a matrixguardian, and
(5) silo-focused employees.
We also provide managers with the best practices that will improve their matrix organizations.
Interest in matrix organizational structures peaked during the 1970s and 1980s.Since that time, research and literature on the
matrix have dropped noticeably.Simultaneously, organizations continue to adopt the matrix as a viable alternative to
deal with their increasingly complex
Overview of the Matrix
By its simplest definition, the matrix is a grid-like organizational
Matrix Forms structure that allows a company to address multiple business dimensions using multiple command structures. The matrix organizational form emerged in the aerospace industry during the 1960s as government contracts required a project-based system linked directly to top management (Knight, 1977). While the matrix can take many forms, three common variants are the functional matrix, balanced Functional Balanced Project matrix, and project matrix (see Exhibit 1) (Burns, 1989; Galbraith,Matrix 1971, 1973; Kolodny, 1979; Larson & Gobeli, 1987). Matrix organizational structures are comprised of multiple business dimensions.
Basic matrix structures have two dimensions (e.g., function by prod-
Employees remain Classic model by Employees moves full members
which the matrix between function matrix, geography by product matrix). More complex matrix of functional form is known.
al departments
structures could encompass three or more dimensions. For example,
departments and projects and a company could be structured not only to focus on product and Employees are respectively retain Processes and officially function, but also to deal with geographic differences.
Thomas Sy, College of Business Administration, California State University, Long Beach Laura Sue D’Annunzio, A.T. Kearney Inc
sing surveys, inter-views, and work-shops with 294 top-level and mid-level managers from seven major multinational corporations in
six industries, we identified the top five contemporary challenges of the matrix organizational form:
(1) misalignedgoals,
(2) unclear roles andresponsibilities,
(3) ambiguousauthority,
(4) lack of a matrixguardian, and
(5) silo-focused employees.
We also provide managers with the best practices that will improve their matrix organizations.
Interest in matrix organizational structures peaked during the 1970s and 1980s.Since that time, research and literature on the
matrix have dropped noticeably.Simultaneously, organizations continue to adopt the matrix as a viable alternative to
deal with their increasingly complex
Overview of the Matrix
By its simplest definition, the matrix is a grid-like organizational
Matrix Forms structure that allows a company to address multiple business dimensions using multiple command structures. The matrix organizational form emerged in the aerospace industry during the 1960s as government contracts required a project-based system linked directly to top management (Knight, 1977). While the matrix can take many forms, three common variants are the functional matrix, balanced Functional Balanced Project matrix, and project matrix (see Exhibit 1) (Burns, 1989; Galbraith,Matrix 1971, 1973; Kolodny, 1979; Larson & Gobeli, 1987). Matrix organizational structures are comprised of multiple business dimensions.
Basic matrix structures have two dimensions (e.g., function by prod-
Employees remain Classic model by Employees moves full members
which the matrix between function matrix, geography by product matrix). More complex matrix of functional form is known.
al departments
structures could encompass three or more dimensions. For example,
departments and projects and a company could be structured not only to focus on product and Employees are respectively retain Processes and officially function, but also to deal with geographic differences.
Monitoring and Controlling
Monitoring and Controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group Processes.[16]Monitoring and Controlling includes:
Measuring the ongoing project activities (where we are);
Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, ...) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be);
Identify corrective actions to properly address issues and risks (How can we get on track again);
Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented
In multi-phase projects, the Monitoring and Controlling process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.
Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:
Continuing support of end users
Correction of errors
Updates of the software over time
Monitoring and Controlling cycleIn this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved.
Over the course of any construction project, the work scope changes. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, “asbuilts.” The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts.
When changes are introduced to the project the viability of the project has to be assessed again. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted end result may not justify the proposed investment.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group Processes.[16]Monitoring and Controlling includes:
Measuring the ongoing project activities (where we are);
Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, ...) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be);
Identify corrective actions to properly address issues and risks (How can we get on track again);
Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented
In multi-phase projects, the Monitoring and Controlling process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.
Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:
Continuing support of end users
Correction of errors
Updates of the software over time
Monitoring and Controlling cycleIn this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved.
Over the course of any construction project, the work scope changes. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, “asbuilts.” The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts.
When changes are introduced to the project the viability of the project has to be assessed again. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted end result may not justify the proposed investment.
Monitoring and Controlling
Monitoring and Controlling consists of those processes performed to observe project execution so that potential problems can be identified in a timely manner and corrective action can be taken, when necessary, to control the execution of the project. The key benefit is that project performance is observed and measured regularly to identify variances from the project management plan.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group Processes.[16]Monitoring and Controlling includes:
Measuring the ongoing project activities (where we are);
Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, ...) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be);
Identify corrective actions to properly address issues and risks (How can we get on track again);
Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented
In multi-phase projects, the Monitoring and Controlling process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.
Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:
Continuing support of end users
Correction of errors
Updates of the software over time
Monitoring and Controlling cycleIn this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved.
Over the course of any construction project, the work scope changes. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, “asbuilts.” The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts.
When changes are introduced to the project the viability of the project has to be assessed again. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted end result may not justify the proposed investment.
Monitoring and Controlling Process Group Processes.[16]Monitoring and Controlling includes:
Measuring the ongoing project activities (where we are);
Monitoring the project variables (cost, effort, ...) against the project management plan and the project performance baseline (where we should be);
Identify corrective actions to properly address issues and risks (How can we get on track again);
Influencing the factors that could circumvent integrated change control so only approved changes are implemented
In multi-phase projects, the Monitoring and Controlling process also provides feedback between project phases, in order to implement corrective or preventive actions to bring the project into compliance with the project management plan.
Project Maintenance is an ongoing process, and it includes:
Continuing support of end users
Correction of errors
Updates of the software over time
Monitoring and Controlling cycleIn this stage, auditors should pay attention to how effectively and quickly user problems are resolved.
Over the course of any construction project, the work scope changes. Change is a normal and expected part of the construction process. Changes can be the result of necessary design modifications, differing site conditions, material availability, contractor-requested changes, value engineering and impacts from third parties, to name a few. Beyond executing the change in the field, the change normally needs to be documented to show what was actually constructed. This is referred to as Change Management. Hence, the owner usually requires a final record to show all changes or, more specifically, any change that modifies the tangible portions of the finished work. The record is made on the contract documents – usually, but not necessarily limited to, the design drawings. The end product of this effort is what the industry terms as-built drawings, or more simply, “asbuilts.” The requirement for providing them is a norm in construction contracts.
When changes are introduced to the project the viability of the project has to be assessed again. It is important not to lose sight of the initial goals and targets of the projects. When the changes accumulate, the forecasted end result may not justify the proposed investment.
Extreme Project Management
In critical studies of Project Management, it has been noted that several of these fundamentally PERT-based models are not well suited for the multi-project company environment of today.[citation needed] Most of them are aimed at very large-scale, one-time, non-routine projects, and nowadays all kinds of management are expressed in terms of projects.
Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few weeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and low maneuverability in several cases. Instead, project management experts try to identify different "lightweight" models, such as Agile Project Management methods including Extreme Programming for software development and Scrum techniques.
The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projects is extreme project management, which may be used in combination with the process modeling and management principles of human interaction management.
Using complex models for "projects" (or rather "tasks") spanning a few weeks has been proven to cause unnecessary costs and low maneuverability in several cases. Instead, project management experts try to identify different "lightweight" models, such as Agile Project Management methods including Extreme Programming for software development and Scrum techniques.
The generalization of Extreme Programming to other kinds of projects is extreme project management, which may be used in combination with the process modeling and management principles of human interaction management.
Critical Chain Project Management
Critical Chain Project Management (CCPM) is a method of planning and managing projects that puts more emphasis on the resources required to execute project tasks. It is an application of the Theory of Constraints (TOC) to projects. The goal is to increase the rate of throughput (or completion rates) of projects in an organization. Applying the first three of the five focusing steps of TOC, the system constraint for all projects is identified as resources. To exploit the constraint, tasks on the critical chain are given priority over all other activities. Finally, projects are planned and managed to ensure that the critical chain tasks are ready to start as soon as the needed resources are available, subordinating all other resources to the critical chain.
For specific projects, the project plan should undergo Resource Leveling, and the longest sequence of resource-constrained tasks is identified as the critical chain. In multi-project environments, resource leveling should be performed across projects. However, it is often enough to identify (or simply select) a single "drum" resource—a resource that acts as a constraint across projects—and stagger projects based on the availability of that single resource
For specific projects, the project plan should undergo Resource Leveling, and the longest sequence of resource-constrained tasks is identified as the critical chain. In multi-project environments, resource leveling should be performed across projects. However, it is often enough to identify (or simply select) a single "drum" resource—a resource that acts as a constraint across projects—and stagger projects based on the availability of that single resource
The traditional approach
A traditional phased approach identifies a sequence of steps to be completed. In the "traditional approach", we can distinguish 5 components of a project (4 stages plus control) in the development of a project:
Typical development phases of a projectProject initiation stage;
Project planning or design stage;
Project execution or production stage;
Project monitoring and controlling systems;
Project completion stage.
Not all the projects will visit every stage as projects can be terminated before they reach completion. Some projects don't have planning and/or monitoring stages. Some projects will go through steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple times.
Many industries utilize variations on these stages. For example, in bricks and mortar architectural design, projects typically progress through stages like Pre-Planning, Conceptual Design, Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Drawings (or Contract Documents), and Construction Administration. In software development, this approach is often known as the waterfall model[14], i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In software development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development can work for small tightly defined projects, but for larger projects of undefined or unknowable scope, it is less suited. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product, this method has been widely accepted as ineffective for software projects where requirements are largely unknowable up front and susceptible to change. While the names may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically follow common steps to problem solving — "defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."
Typical development phases of a projectProject initiation stage;
Project planning or design stage;
Project execution or production stage;
Project monitoring and controlling systems;
Project completion stage.
Not all the projects will visit every stage as projects can be terminated before they reach completion. Some projects don't have planning and/or monitoring stages. Some projects will go through steps 2, 3 and 4 multiple times.
Many industries utilize variations on these stages. For example, in bricks and mortar architectural design, projects typically progress through stages like Pre-Planning, Conceptual Design, Schematic Design, Design Development, Construction Drawings (or Contract Documents), and Construction Administration. In software development, this approach is often known as the waterfall model[14], i.e., one series of tasks after another in linear sequence. In software development many organizations have adapted the Rational Unified Process (RUP) to fit this methodology, although RUP does not require or explicitly recommend this practice. Waterfall development can work for small tightly defined projects, but for larger projects of undefined or unknowable scope, it is less suited. The Cone of Uncertainty explains some of this as the planning made on the initial phase of the project suffers from a high degree of uncertainty. This becomes especially true as software development is often the realization of a new or novel product, this method has been widely accepted as ineffective for software projects where requirements are largely unknowable up front and susceptible to change. While the names may differ from industry to industry, the actual stages typically follow common steps to problem solving — "defining the problem, weighing options, choosing a path, implementation and evaluation."
Project management
Project management is the discipline[1] of planning, organizing and managing resources to bring about the successful completion of specific project goals and objectives.
A project is a finite endeavor--having specific start and completion dates--undertaken to meet particular goals and objectives, usually to bring about beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in contrast to processes[2], or operations--which is repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional work to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management.
The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals[3] and objectives while honoring the preconceived project constraints.[4] Typical constraints are scope, time and budget.[5] The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives
A project is a finite endeavor--having specific start and completion dates--undertaken to meet particular goals and objectives, usually to bring about beneficial change or added value. This finite characteristic of projects stands in contrast to processes[2], or operations--which is repetitive, permanent or semi-permanent functional work to produce products or services. In practice, the management of these two systems is often found to be quite different, and as such requires the development of distinct technical skills and the adoption of separate management.
The primary challenge of project management is to achieve all of the project goals[3] and objectives while honoring the preconceived project constraints.[4] Typical constraints are scope, time and budget.[5] The secondary—and more ambitious—challenge is to optimize the allocation and integration of inputs necessary to meet pre-defined objectives
Event Chains
Event Chains
Events can cause other events, which will create event chains. These event chains can significantly affect the course of the project. For example, requirement changes can cause an activity to be delayed. To accelerate the activity, the project manager allocates a resource from another activity, which then leads to a missed deadline. Eventually, this can lead to the failure of the project.
[edit] Monte Carlo Simulations
Once events and event chains are defined, quantitative analysis using Monte Carlo simulation can be performed to quantify the cumulative effect of the events. Probabilities and effects of risks are used as input data for Monte Carlo simulation of the project schedule[6]. In most real life projects, it is necessary to supplement the information regarding the uncertainties expressed as an event, with distributions related to duration, start time, cost, and other parameters.
[edit] Critical Event Chains
The single events or the event chains that have the most potential to affect the projects are the “critical events” or “critical chains of events.” By identifying critical events or critical chains of events, we can mitigate their negative effects. These critical chains of events can be identified by analyzing the correlations between the main project parameters, such as project duration or cost, and the event chains.
[edit] Performance Tracking with Event Chains
Monitoring the activity's progress ensures that updated information is used to perform the analysis. During the course of the project, the probability and time of the events can be recalculated based on actual data. The main issue with performance tracking is forecasting an activity’s duration and cost if an activity is partially completed and certain events are assigned to the activity. The simple heuristic approach to this problem is to analyze the moment of risk, which is defined as one of the event parameters. Advanced analysis can be performed using a Bayesian approach.
Event Chain Diagrams
Event Chain Diagrams are visualizations that show the relationships between events and tasks and how the events affect each other. The simplest way to represent these chains is to depict them as arrows associated with certain tasks or time intervals on the Gantt chart. Different events and event chains can be displayed using different colors. Events can be global (for all tasks in the project) and local (for a particular task). By using Event Chain Diagrams to visualize events and event chains, the modeling and analysis of risks and uncertainties can be significantly simplified
Events can cause other events, which will create event chains. These event chains can significantly affect the course of the project. For example, requirement changes can cause an activity to be delayed. To accelerate the activity, the project manager allocates a resource from another activity, which then leads to a missed deadline. Eventually, this can lead to the failure of the project.
[edit] Monte Carlo Simulations
Once events and event chains are defined, quantitative analysis using Monte Carlo simulation can be performed to quantify the cumulative effect of the events. Probabilities and effects of risks are used as input data for Monte Carlo simulation of the project schedule[6]. In most real life projects, it is necessary to supplement the information regarding the uncertainties expressed as an event, with distributions related to duration, start time, cost, and other parameters.
[edit] Critical Event Chains
The single events or the event chains that have the most potential to affect the projects are the “critical events” or “critical chains of events.” By identifying critical events or critical chains of events, we can mitigate their negative effects. These critical chains of events can be identified by analyzing the correlations between the main project parameters, such as project duration or cost, and the event chains.
[edit] Performance Tracking with Event Chains
Monitoring the activity's progress ensures that updated information is used to perform the analysis. During the course of the project, the probability and time of the events can be recalculated based on actual data. The main issue with performance tracking is forecasting an activity’s duration and cost if an activity is partially completed and certain events are assigned to the activity. The simple heuristic approach to this problem is to analyze the moment of risk, which is defined as one of the event parameters. Advanced analysis can be performed using a Bayesian approach.
Event Chain Diagrams
Event Chain Diagrams are visualizations that show the relationships between events and tasks and how the events affect each other. The simplest way to represent these chains is to depict them as arrows associated with certain tasks or time intervals on the Gantt chart. Different events and event chains can be displayed using different colors. Events can be global (for all tasks in the project) and local (for a particular task). By using Event Chain Diagrams to visualize events and event chains, the modeling and analysis of risks and uncertainties can be significantly simplified
Event chain methodology
Event chain methodology is an uncertainty modeling and schedule network analysis technique that is focused on identifying and managing events and event chains that affect project schedules. Event chain methodology is the next advance beyond critical path method and critical chain project management.[1].
Event chain methodology helps to mitigate effect motivational and cognitive biases in estimating and scheduling.[2][3] . In many cases, project managers intentionally or unintentionally create project schedules that are impossible to implement[4][5]. The methodology also simplifies the process of defining risks and uncertainties in project schedules, particularly by improving the ability to provide reality checks and to visualize multiple events. Event chain methodology is used to perform more accurate quantitative analysis while taking into account such factors as relationships between different events and actual moments of the events.
Event chain methodology helps to mitigate effect motivational and cognitive biases in estimating and scheduling.[2][3] . In many cases, project managers intentionally or unintentionally create project schedules that are impossible to implement[4][5]. The methodology also simplifies the process of defining risks and uncertainties in project schedules, particularly by improving the ability to provide reality checks and to visualize multiple events. Event chain methodology is used to perform more accurate quantitative analysis while taking into account such factors as relationships between different events and actual moments of the events.
Tuesday, June 9, 2009
Risk management plan
A Risk Management Plan is a document prepared by a project manager to foresee risks, to estimate the effectiveness, and to create response plans to mitigate them. It also consists of the risk assessment matrix.
A risk is defined as "an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on a project's objectives."[1] Risk is inherent with any project, and project managers should assess risks continually and develop plans to address them. The risk management plan contains an analysis of likely risks with both high and low impact, as well as mitigation strategies to help the project avoid being derailed should common problems arise. Risk management plans should be periodically reviewed by the project team in order to avoid having the analysis become stale and not reflective of actual potential project risks.
Most critically, risk management plans include a risk strategy. Broadly, there are four potential strategies, with numerous variations. Projects may choose to:
Accept risk; simply take the chance that the negative impact will be incurred
Avoid risk; changing plans in order to prevent the problem from arising
Mitigate risk; lessening its impact through intermediate steps
Transfer risk; outsource risk to a capable third party that can manage the outcome
A risk is defined as "an uncertain event or condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on a project's objectives."[1] Risk is inherent with any project, and project managers should assess risks continually and develop plans to address them. The risk management plan contains an analysis of likely risks with both high and low impact, as well as mitigation strategies to help the project avoid being derailed should common problems arise. Risk management plans should be periodically reviewed by the project team in order to avoid having the analysis become stale and not reflective of actual potential project risks.
Most critically, risk management plans include a risk strategy. Broadly, there are four potential strategies, with numerous variations. Projects may choose to:
Accept risk; simply take the chance that the negative impact will be incurred
Avoid risk; changing plans in order to prevent the problem from arising
Mitigate risk; lessening its impact through intermediate steps
Transfer risk; outsource risk to a capable third party that can manage the outcome
Monday, June 8, 2009
Private property rights
According to the classical liberal view, a secure system of private property rights is an essential part of economic freedom. Such systems include two main rights: the right to control and benefit from property and the right to transfer property by voluntary means. These rights offer people the possibility of autonomy and self-determination according to theirs personal values and goals.[21] Economist Milton Friedman sees property rights as "the most basic of human rights and an essential foundation for other human rights."[22] With property rights protected, people are free to choose the use of their property, earn on it, and transfer it to anyone else, as long as they do it on a voluntary basis and do not resort to force, fraud or theft. In such conditions most people can achieve much greater personal freedom and development than under a regime of government coercion. A secure system of property rights also reduces uncertainty and encourages investments, creating favorable conditions for an economy to be successful.[23] Empirical evidence suggests that countries with strong property rights systems have economic growth rates almost twice as high as those of countries with weak property rights systems, and that a market system with significant private property rights is an essential condition for democracy.[24] According to Hernando de Soto, much of the poverty in the Third World countries is caused by the lack of Western systems of laws and well-defined and universally recognized property rights. De Soto argues that because of the legal barriers poor people in those countries can not utilize their assets to produce more wealth.[25] Pierre Proudhon, a socialist and anarchist thinker, argued that property is both theft and freedom.[26]
Institutions of economic freedom
Classical liberals argue that the rule of law both requires, and is required for economic freedom. Friedrich Hayek argued that the certainty of law contributed to the prosperity of the West more that any other single factor. Other important principles of the rule of law are the generality and equality of the law, which require that all legal rules apply equally to everybody. These principles can be seen as safeguards against severe restrictions on liberty, because they require that all laws equally apply to those with political and coercive power as well as those who are governed. Principles of the generality and equality of the law exclude special privileges and arbitrary application of law, that is laws favoring one group at the expense of other citizens.[18] According to Friedrich Hayek, equality before the law is incompatible with any activity of the government aiming to achieve the material equality of different people. He asserts that a state's attempt to place people in the same (or similar) material position leads to an unequal treatment of individuals and to a compulsory redistribution of income.[19] Both of those actions are contributing to a decline in economic freedom.
Economic freedom
Economic freedom is a term used in economic research and policy debates. As with freedom generally, there are various definitions, but no universally accepted concept of economic freedom.[1][2] One major approach to economic freedom comes from the libertarian tradition emphasizing free markets and private property, while another extends the welfare economics study of individual choice, with greater economic freedom coming from a "larger" (in some technical sense) set of possible choices.[3] Another more philosophical perspective emphasizes its context in distributive justice and basic freedoms of all individuals.[4]
Today the term is most commonly associated with a classical liberal (or free market) viewpoint, and defined as the freedom to produce, trade and consume any goods and services acquired without the use of force, fraud or theft. This is embodied in the rule of law, property rights and freedom of contract, and characterized by external and internal openness of the markets, the protection of property rights and freedom of economic initiative.[5][6][3]
Indices of economic freedom attempt to measure (free market) economic freedom, and empirical studies based on these rankings have found them to be correlated with higher living standards, economic growth, income equality, less corruption and less political violence.[7][8][9][10][11] These economic freedom indices are sometimes used to rank countries by economic freedom, and are usually topped by Hong Kong and Singapore. Between 1985 and 2005, only a small number of surveyed countries did not increase their Economic Freedom of the World score.[12] Some empirical analysis suggests that the index is not closely correlated with economic growth,[13] but regression analysis of the disaggregated components suggests that some specific freedoms contribute to economic growth while others hamper it.[14]
Other conceptions of economic freedom include freedom from want[1][15] and the freedom to engage in collective bargaining.[16]
Today the term is most commonly associated with a classical liberal (or free market) viewpoint, and defined as the freedom to produce, trade and consume any goods and services acquired without the use of force, fraud or theft. This is embodied in the rule of law, property rights and freedom of contract, and characterized by external and internal openness of the markets, the protection of property rights and freedom of economic initiative.[5][6][3]
Indices of economic freedom attempt to measure (free market) economic freedom, and empirical studies based on these rankings have found them to be correlated with higher living standards, economic growth, income equality, less corruption and less political violence.[7][8][9][10][11] These economic freedom indices are sometimes used to rank countries by economic freedom, and are usually topped by Hong Kong and Singapore. Between 1985 and 2005, only a small number of surveyed countries did not increase their Economic Freedom of the World score.[12] Some empirical analysis suggests that the index is not closely correlated with economic growth,[13] but regression analysis of the disaggregated components suggests that some specific freedoms contribute to economic growth while others hamper it.[14]
Other conceptions of economic freedom include freedom from want[1][15] and the freedom to engage in collective bargaining.[16]
Environmental rights
There are two basic conceptions of environmental human rights in the current human rights system. The first is that the right to a healthy or adequate environment is itself a human right (as seen in the both Article 21 of the African Charter of Human and People’s Rights, and Article 11 of the San Salvador Protocol to the American Charter of Human Rights).[91][92]. The second conception is the idea that environmental human rights can be derived from other human rights, usually - the right to life, the right to health, the right to private family life and the right to property (among many others). This second theory enjoys much more widespread use in human rights courts around the world, as those rights are contained in many human rights documents.
The onset of various environmental issues, especially climate change, has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. Such as the conflict between right to decide number of offspring and the common need for a healthy environment, as noted in the tragedy of the commons.[93] In the area of environmental rights, the responsibilities of multinational corporations, so far relatively unaddressed by human rights legislation, is of paramount consideration.[citation needed]
Environmental Rights revolve largely around the idea of a right to a livable environment both for the present and the future generations.
The onset of various environmental issues, especially climate change, has created potential conflicts between different human rights. Human rights ultimately require a working ecosystem and healthy environment, but the granting of certain rights to individuals may damage these. Such as the conflict between right to decide number of offspring and the common need for a healthy environment, as noted in the tragedy of the commons.[93] In the area of environmental rights, the responsibilities of multinational corporations, so far relatively unaddressed by human rights legislation, is of paramount consideration.[citation needed]
Environmental Rights revolve largely around the idea of a right to a livable environment both for the present and the future generations.
Human rights violations
Human rights violations occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the UDHR treaty or other international human rights or humanitarian law. In regard to human rights violations of United Nations laws. Article 39 of the United Nations Charter designates the UN Security Council (or an appointed authority) as the only tribunal that may determine UN human rights violations.
Human rights abuses are monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments and by many independent non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, International Federation of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International. These organisations collect evidence and documentation of alleged human rights abuses and apply pressure to enforce human rights laws.
Only a very few countries do not commit significant human rights violations, according to Amnesty International. In their 2004 human rights report (covering 2003), the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Costa Rica are the only (mappable) countries that did not (in their opinion) violate at least some human rights significantly.[89]
There are a wide variety of databases available which attempt to measure, in a rigorous fashion, exactly what violations governments commit against those within their territorial jurisdiction.[citation needed] An example of this is the list created and maintained by Prof. Christian Davenport at the University of Maryland.[90]
Wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide, are breaches of International humanitarian law and represent the most serious of human rights violations.
When a government closes a geographical region to journalists, it raises suspicions of human rights violations. Seven regions are currently closed to foreign journalists
Human rights abuses are monitored by United Nations committees, national institutions and governments and by many independent non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty International, International Federation of Human Rights, Human Rights Watch, World Organisation Against Torture, Freedom House, International Freedom of Expression Exchange and Anti-Slavery International. These organisations collect evidence and documentation of alleged human rights abuses and apply pressure to enforce human rights laws.
Only a very few countries do not commit significant human rights violations, according to Amnesty International. In their 2004 human rights report (covering 2003), the Netherlands, Norway, Denmark, Iceland and Costa Rica are the only (mappable) countries that did not (in their opinion) violate at least some human rights significantly.[89]
There are a wide variety of databases available which attempt to measure, in a rigorous fashion, exactly what violations governments commit against those within their territorial jurisdiction.[citation needed] An example of this is the list created and maintained by Prof. Christian Davenport at the University of Maryland.[90]
Wars of aggression, war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide, are breaches of International humanitarian law and represent the most serious of human rights violations.
When a government closes a geographical region to journalists, it raises suspicions of human rights violations. Seven regions are currently closed to foreign journalists
Human rights vs. national security
With the exception of non-derogable human rights (international conventions class the right to life, the right to be free from slavery, the right to be free from torture and the right to be free from retroactive application of penal laws as non-derogable[84]), the UN recognises that human rights can be limited or even pushed aside during times of national emergency - although
“ the emergency must be actual, affect the whole population and the threat must be to the very existence of the nation. The declaration of emergency must also be a last resort and a temporary measure ”
—United Nations. The Resource[84]
Rights that cannot be derogated for reasons of national security in any circumstances are known as peremptory norms or jus cogens. Such United Nations Charter obligations are binding on all states and cannot be modified by treaty.
Examples of national security being used to justify human rights violations include the Japanese American internment during World War II,[85] Stalin's Great Purge,[86] and the actual and alleged modern-day abuses of terror suspects rights by some western countries, often in the name of the War on Terror
“ the emergency must be actual, affect the whole population and the threat must be to the very existence of the nation. The declaration of emergency must also be a last resort and a temporary measure ”
—United Nations. The Resource[84]
Rights that cannot be derogated for reasons of national security in any circumstances are known as peremptory norms or jus cogens. Such United Nations Charter obligations are binding on all states and cannot be modified by treaty.
Examples of national security being used to justify human rights violations include the Japanese American internment during World War II,[85] Stalin's Great Purge,[86] and the actual and alleged modern-day abuses of terror suspects rights by some western countries, often in the name of the War on Terror
National Labor Committee in Support of Human and Worker Rights
The National Labor Committee in Support of Human and Worker Rights, commonly known as the National Labor Committee or the NLC, is a non-profit non-governmental organization (NGO) founded in 1981 by David Dyson to combat sweatshop labor and United States government policy in El Salvador and Central America. Today the NLC has offices in New York City, Bangladesh, and Central America; when Dyson left to become Executive Minister of Fort Greene's Lafayette Avenue Presbyterian Church, Charles Kernaghan became Executive Director.
The National Labor Committee engages in fact-finding missions throughout the world to expose and document labor and human rights abuses; they then use this information to raise public awareness in an effort to change corporate policy. In addition to targeting stores and manufacturers, they often target celebrities who have clothing lines. Their 1996 discovery that Kathie Lee Gifford's Wal-Mart clothing line was being manufactured in Honduran sweatshops is often cited as the beginning of mainstream media coverage of the sweatshop phenomenon. Since then, the NLC has exposed the conditions under which many celebrity labels are made, including those of Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, Sean Combs(also known as P Diddy) and, most recently, Thalia Sodi.
They often work with labor unions and other human rights groups; one their closest allies has been United Students Against Sweatshops (USAS), who they assisted in forming the Worker Rights Consortium in an effort to fight the use of sweatshops in manufacturing collegiate apparel.
The NLC has also worked with the United Steel Workers of America and Senator Byron Dorgan (D-ND) to draft the "Decent Working Conditions and Fair Competition Act," which was introduced in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate in 2006.
The National Labor Committee engages in fact-finding missions throughout the world to expose and document labor and human rights abuses; they then use this information to raise public awareness in an effort to change corporate policy. In addition to targeting stores and manufacturers, they often target celebrities who have clothing lines. Their 1996 discovery that Kathie Lee Gifford's Wal-Mart clothing line was being manufactured in Honduran sweatshops is often cited as the beginning of mainstream media coverage of the sweatshop phenomenon. Since then, the NLC has exposed the conditions under which many celebrity labels are made, including those of Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen, Sean Combs(also known as P Diddy) and, most recently, Thalia Sodi.
They often work with labor unions and other human rights groups; one their closest allies has been United Students Against Sweatshops (USAS), who they assisted in forming the Worker Rights Consortium in an effort to fight the use of sweatshops in manufacturing collegiate apparel.
The NLC has also worked with the United Steel Workers of America and Senator Byron Dorgan (D-ND) to draft the "Decent Working Conditions and Fair Competition Act," which was introduced in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate in 2006.
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